were comprised within

* * *

अन्तर् ind. [अम्-अरन्-तुडागमश्च Uṇ.5.6, अमेस्तुट् च]

1 (Used as a prefix to verbs and regarded as a preposition or गति) (a) In the middle, between; in, into, inside; ˚हन्, ˚धा, ˚गम्, ˚भू, ˚इ, ˚ली &c. (b) Under.

-2 (Used adverbially) (a) Between, be- twixt, amongst, within; in the middle or interior, inside (opp. वहिः); अदह्यतान्तः R.2.32 burnt within himself, at heart; अन्तरेव विहरन् दिवानिशम् R.19.6 in the palace, in the harem; so ˚भिन्नं भ्रमति हृदयम् Māl. 5.2; अन्तर्विभेद Dk.13; यदन्तस्तन्न जिह्वायाम् Pt.4.88; अन्तर्यश्च मृग्यते V.1.1 internally, in the mind. (b) By way of seizing or holding; अन्तर्हत्वा गतः (हतं परिगृह्य).

-3 (As a separable preposition) (a) In, into, between, in the middle, inside, within, (with loc.); निवसन्नन्तर्दारुणि लङ्घ्यो वह्निः Pt.1.31; अन्तरादित्ये Ch. Up., अन्तर्वेश्मनि Ms.7 223; Y.3.31; अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु Rv.1. 23.19. अप्सु मे सोमो$ब्रवीदन्तर् विश्वानि भेषजा ibid. (b) Between (with acc.) Ved. अन्तर्मही बृहती रोदसीमे Rv. 7.87.2; अन्तर्देवान् मर्त्यांश्च 8.2.4; हिरण्मय्योर्ह कुश्योरन्तर- वहित आस Śat. Br. (c) In, into, inside, in the interior, in the midst (with gen.); प्रतिबलजलधेरन्तरौर्वायमाणे Ve. 3.7; अन्तःकञ्चुकिकञ्चुकस्य Ratn.2.3; बहिरन्तश्च भूतानाम् Bg.13.15; त्वमग्ने सर्वभूतानामन्तश्चरसि साक्षिवत् Y.2.14; लघुवृत्तितया भिदां गतं बहिरन्तश्च नृपस्य मण्डलम् Ki.2.53; अन्तरीपं यदन्तर्वारिणस्तटम् Ak.; oft. in comp. at the end; कूपान्तः पतितः Pt.5; सभान्तः साक्षिणः प्राप्तान् Ms.8.79; दन्तान्तरधि- ष्ठितम् Ms.5.141 between the teeth; उत्पित्सवो$न्तर्नदभर्तुः Śi.3.77; also in compound with a following word; अहं सदा शरीरान्तर्वासिनी ते सरस्वती Ks.4.11.

-4 It is fre- quently used as the first member of compounds in the sense of 'internally', 'inside', 'within', 'in the inte- rior', 'having in the interior', 'filled with', 'having concealed within', or in the sense of 'inward', 'internal', 'secret', 'hidden' &c., forming Adverbial, Bahuvrīhi or Tatpuruṣa compounds; कुन्दमन्तस्तुषारम् (Bah. comp.) Ś.5.19 filled with dew; ˚स्तोयम् (Bah. comp.) Me.66; अन्तर्गिरि (Adv. comp.) Ki.1.34; ज्वलयति तनूमन्तर्दाहः (Tat. comp.) U.3.31; so ˚कोपः, ˚कोणः, ˚आकूतम् &c.

-5 It is also supposed to be a particle of assent (स्वीकारार्थक). (Note. In comp. the र् of अन्तर् is changed to a visarga before hard consonants, as अन्तः- करणम्, अन्तःस्थ &c.). [cf. L. inter; Zend antare; Goth. undar; Pers. andar; Gr. entos;].

-Comp. -अंसः the breast (= अंतरा-अंस q. v.).

-अग्निः inward fire, the fire which stimulates digestion; दीप्तान्तरग्निपरिशुद्धकोष्ठः Susr.

-अंङ्ग a.

1 inward, internal, comprehended, included (with abl.); त्रयमन्तरङ्ग पूर्वेभ्यः Pat Sūtra.

-2 proximate, related to, essential to or referring to the essential part of the अङ्ग or base of a word (opp. बहिरङ्ग); धातूपसर्गयोः कार्यमन्तरङ्गम् P.VIII.3.74 Sk.

-3 dear, most beloved (अत्यन्तप्रिय); स्वपिति सुखमिदा- नीमन्तरङ्गः कुरङ्गः Ś.4.v.l.

(-अङ्गम्) 1 the inmost limb or organ, the heart, mind; सन्तुष्टान्तरङ्गः Dk.11; ˚वृत्ति 21; the interior.

-2 an intimate friend, near or con- fidential person (forming, as it were, part of oneself); मदन्तरङ्गभूताम् Dk.81,93,11; राजान्तरङ्गभावेन 135; अन्तरङ्गेषु राज्यभारं समर्प्य*** 159.

-3 an essential or indispensable part, as श्रवण, मनन & निदिध्यासन in realizing Brahman.

-4 What is intimately connected or related; अन्तरङ्गबहिरङ्ग- योरन्तरङ्ग बलीयः ŚB. on MS.12.2.29.

- अवयव an inner part; P.V.4.62.

-आकाशः the ether or Brahman that resides in the heart of man (a term often occurring in the Upaniṣads).

-आकूतम् secret or hidden intention.

-आगमः an additional augment between two letters,

-आगारम् the interior of a house; स्त्रीनक्तमन्तरा- गारबहिःशत्रुकृतांस्तथा Y.2.31.

-आत्मन् m. (त्मा)

1 the inmost spirit or soul, the soul or mind; also the internal feelings, the heart, अङ्गुष्ठमात्रपुरुषोन्तरात्मा Śvet.; नास्य प्रत्यक- रोद्वीर्यं विक्लवेनान्तरात्मना Rām.6.13.28. गतिमस्यान्तरात्मनः Ms.6.73; जीवसंज्ञोन्तरात्मान्यः सहजः सर्वदेहिनाम् 12.13; मद्- गतेनान्तरात्मना Bg.6.47 with the heart fixed on me; जातो ममायं विशदः प्रकामं...... अन्तरात्मा Ś.4.22, U.3.38, प्रायः सर्वो भवति करुणावृत्तिरार्द्रान्तरात्मा Me.95.

-2 (In phil.) the inherent supreme spirit or soul (residing in the in- terior of man); अन्तरात्मासि देहिनाम् Ku.6.21.

-आपणः a market in the heart (inside) of a town.

-आय, -आल; See s. v.

-आराम a. rejoicing in oneself, finding pleasure in his soul or heart; यो$न्तःसुखोन्तरारामस्तथान्तर्जर्यो- तिरेव सः Bg.5.24.

-इन्द्रियम् an internal organ or sense.

-उष्यम् Ved. a secret abode.

-करणम् the internal organ; the heart, soul; the seat of thought and feeling, thinking faculty, mind, conscience; प्रमाणं ˚प्रवृत्तयः Ś.1.22; सबाह्य ˚णः अन्तरात्मा V.4 the soul in all its senses external and internal, the inner and outer man; दयार्द्रभावमाख्यातमन्तःकरणैर्विशङ्कैः R.2.11. According to the Vedānta अन्तःकरण is of four kinds: मनो बुद्धिरहङ्कार- श्चित्तं करणमान्तरम् । संशयो निश्चयो गर्वः स्मरणं विषया इमे ॥ अन्तःकरणं त्रिविधम् Sāṅkhya 33, i. e. बुद्धयहङ्कारमनांसि; सान्तःकरणा बुद्धिः 35, i. e. अहङ्कारमनःसहिता.

-कल्पः a certain number of years (with Buddhists).

-कुटिल a. inwardly crooked (fig. also); fraudulent. (

-लः) a conch-shell.

-कृ(क्रि)मिः a disease of worms in the body.

-कोटरपुष्पी = अण्ड- कोटरपुष्पी.

-कोपः 1 internal disturbance; H.3.

-2 inward wrath, secret anger.

-कोशम् the interior of a store- room.

-गङ्गा the secret or hidden Ganges (supposed to communicate uuderground with a secret stream in Mysore).

-गडु a. [अन्तर्मध्ये गडुरिव] useless, unprofitable, unnecessary, unavailing; किमनेनान्तर्गडुना Sar. S. (ग्रीवाप्रदेश- जातस्य गलमांसपिण्डस्य गडोर्यथा निरर्थकत्वं तद्वत्).

-गम् -गत &c. See under अंतर्गम्.

-गर्भ a.

1 bearing young, pregnant.

-2 having a गर्भ or inside; so ˚गर्भिन्.

-गिरम् -रि ind. in mountains. अध्यास्तेन्तर्गिरं यस्मात् करतन्नावैति कारणम् Bk.5.87.

-गुडवलयः the sphincter muscle.

-गूढ a. conceal- ed inside, being inward; ˚घनव्यथः U.3.1; R.19.57; ˚विषः with poison concealed in the heart.

-गृहम्, -गेहम्, -भवनम् [अन्तःस्थं गृहम् &c.]

1 the inner apartment of a house, the interior of a house.

-2 N. of a holy place in Benares; पञ्चक्रोश्यां कृतं पापमन्तर्गेहे विनश्यति.

-घणः -णम् [अन्तर्हन्यते क्रोडीभवत्यस्मिन्, निपातः] the open space before the house between the entrance-door and the house (= porch or court); तस्मिन्नन्तर्घणे पश्यन् प्रघाणे सौधसद्मनः Bk.7.62 द्वारमतिक्रम्य यः सावकाशप्रदेशः सो$न्तर्घणः). (

-नः -णः) N. of a country of Bāhīka (or Bālhīka) (P.III.3.78 बाहीकग्रामविशेषस्य संज्ञेयम् Sk.).

-घातः striking in the middle Kāsi. on P.III.3.78.

-चर a. pervading the body. internally situated, internal, inward अन्तश्चराणां मरुतां निरोधात् Ku.3.48; U.7.

-ज a. born or bred in the interior (as a worm &c.).

-जठरम् the stomach. (ind.) in the stomach.

-जम्भः the inner part of the jaws (खादनस्थानं जम्भः, दन्तपङ्क्त्यो- रन्तरालम्).

-जात a. inborn, innate.

-जानु ind. between the knees.

-जानुशयः One sleeping with hands between the knees; अन्तर्जानुशयो यस्तु भुञ्जते सक्तभाजनः Mb.3.2.75.

-ज्ञानम् inward or secret knowledge.

-ज्योतिस् a. enlightened inwardly, with an enlightened soul. यो$न्तःसुखो$न्तरारामस्तथान्तर्ज्योतिरेव यः Bg.5.24. (

-स् n.) the inward light, light of Brahman.

-ज्वलनम् inflammation. (

-नः) inward heat or fire; mental anxiety.

-ताप a. burning inwardly (

-पः) internal fever or heat Ś.3.13.

-दधनम् [अन्तर्दध्यते आधीयते मादकतानेन] distillation of spirituous liquor, or a substance used to produce fermentation.

-दशा a term in astrology, the time when a particular planet exercises its influence over man's destiny (ज्योतिषोक्तः महादशान्तर्गतो ग्रहाणां स्वाधिपत्यकालभेदः).

-दशाहम् an interval of 1 days; ˚हात् before 1 days. Ms.8.222; ˚हे 5.79.

-दहनम् -दाहः 1 inward heat; ज्वलयति तनूमन्तर्दाहः U.3.31; ˚हेन दहनः सन्तापयति राघवम् Rām.

-2 inflammation.

-दुःख a. sad or afflicted at heart;

-दुष्ट a. internally bad, wicked or base at heart.

-दृष्टिः f. examining one's own soul, insight into oneself.

-देशः an intermediate region of the compass.

-द्वारम् private or secret door within the house (प्रकोष्ठद्वारम्).

-धा-धि, -हित &c. See. s. v.

-नगरम् the palace of a king (being inside the town); cf. ˚पुरम्; दशाननान्तर्नगरं ददर्श Rām.

-निवेशनम् inner part of the house; यथा चारोपितो वृक्षो जातश्चान्तर्निवेशने Rām.6.128.6.

-निहित a. being concealed within; अङ्गैरन्तर्निहितवचनैः सूचितः सम्यगर्थः M.2.8.

-निष्ठ a. engaged in internal meditation.

-पटः, -टम् a screen of cloth held between two persons who are to be united (as a bride and bridegroom, or pupil and preceptor) until the acctual time of union arrives.

-पथ a. Ved. being on the way.

-पदम् ind. in the interior of an inflected word.

-पदवी = सुषुम्णामध्यगतः पन्थाः

-पिरधानम् the innermost garment.

-पर्शव्य a. being between the ribs (as flesh).

-पवित्रः the Soma when in the straining vessel.

-पशुः [अन्तर्गाममध्ये पशवो यत्र] the time when the cattle are in the village or stables (from sunset to sunrise); अन्तःपशौ पशुकामस्य सायं प्रातः Kāty; (सायं पशुषु ग्राममध्ये आगतेषु प्रातश्च ग्रामादनिःसृतेषु com.).

-पातः, पात्यः 1 insertion of a letter (in Gram.).

-2 a post fixed in the middle of the sacrificial ground (used in ritual works); अन्तःपूर्वेण यूपं परीत्यान्तःपात्यदेशे स्थापयति Kāty.

-पातित, -पातिन् a.

1 inserted.

-2 included or comprised in; falling within; दण्डकारण्य˚ ति आश्रमपदम् K.2.

-पात्रम् Ved. interior of a vessel.

-पालः one who watches over the inner apartments of a palace.

-पुरम् [अन्तः अभ्यन्तरं पुरं गृहम्, or पुरस्यान्तःस्थितम्]

1 inner apartment of a palace (set apart for women); female or women's apartments, seraglio, harem (so called from their being situated in the heart of the town, for purposes of safety); व्यायम्याप्लुत्य मध्याह्ने भोक्तुमन्तःपुरं विशेत् Ms.7.216,221,224; कन्यान्तःपुरे कश्चित्प्रविशति Pt.1.

-2 inmates of the female apartments, a queen or queens, the ladies taken collectively; अन्तःपुराणि सर्वाणि रुदमानानि सत्वरम् Rām.6.111.111. ˚विरहपर्युत्सुकस्य राजर्षेः Ś.3; K.58; ततो राजा सान्तःपुरः स्वगृह- मानीयाभ्यर्चितः Pt.1; कस्यचिद्राज्ञो$न्तःपुरं जलक्रीडां कुरुते ibid. ˚प्रचारः gossip of the harem Ms.7.153; ˚समागतः Ś.4; also in pl.; कदाचिदस्मत्प्रार्थनामन्तःपुरेभ्यः कथयेत् Ś.2.; न ददाति वाचमुचितामन्तःपुरेभ्यो यदा Ś.6.5. ˚जन women of the palace; inmates of the female apartments; ˚चर,

-अध्यक्षः-रक्षकः, -वर्ती guardian or superintendent of the harem, chamber- lain; वृद्धः कुलोद्रतः शक्तः पितृपैतामहः शुचिः । राज्ञामन्तःपुरा- ध्यक्षो विनीतश्च तथेष्यते ॥ (of these five sorts are mentioned:- वामनक, जघन्य, कुब्ज, मण्डलक and सामिन् see Bṛi. S.) ˚सहायः one belonging to the harem.

-पुरिकः [अन्तःपुरे नियुक्तः, ठक्] a chamberlain = ˚चर. (

-कः, -का) a woman in the harem; अस्मत्प्रार्थनामन्तःपुरिके(का) भ्यो निवेदय Chaṇḍ. K.

-पुष्पम् [कर्म.] the menstrual matter of women, before it re- gularly begins to flow every month; वर्षद्वादशकादूर्ध्वं यदि पुष्पं बहिर्न हि । अन्तःपुष्पं भवत्येव पनसोदुम्बरादिवत् Kāśyapa; ˚ष्पम् is therefore the age between 12 and the menstruation period.

-पूय a. ulcerous.

-पेयम् Ved. drinking up.

-प्रकृतिः f.

1 the internal nature or constitution of man.

-2 the ministry or body of ministers of a king.

-3 heart or soul. ˚प्रकोपः internal dissensions or disaffection; अणुरप्युपहन्ति विग्रहः प्रभुमन्तःप्रकृतिप्रकोपजः Ki.2.51.

-प्रको- पनम् sowing internal dissensions, causing internal revolts; अन्तःप्रकोपनं कार्यमभियोक्तुः स्थिरात्मनः H.3.93.

-प्रज्ञ a. knowing oneself, with an enlightened soul.

-प्रतिष्ठानम् residence in the interior.

-बाष्प a.

1 with suppressed tears; अन्तर्बाष्पश्चिरमनुचरो राजराजस्य दध्यौ Me.3.

-2 with tears gushing up inside, bedimmed with tears; कोपात्˚ ष्पे स्मरयति मां लोचने तस्याः V.4.15. (

-ष्पः) suppressed tears, inward tears; निगृह्य ˚ष्पम् Bh.3.6; Māl.5.

-भावः, भावना see under अन्तर्भू separately.

-भिन्न a. split or broken inside, perforated, bored (said of a pearl) Pt.4 (also torn by dissensions).

-भूमिः f. interior of the earth.

-भेदः discord, internal dissensions; ˚जर्जरं राजकुलम् Mk.4 torn by internal dissensions; अन्तर्भेदाकुलं गेहं न चिराद्विनशिष्यति 'a house divided against itself cannot stand long.'

-भौम a. subterranean, underground.

-मदावस्थ a. having the rutting state concealed within; आसीदनाविष्कृतदानराजि- रन्तर्मदावस्थ इव द्विपेन्द्रः R.2.7.

-मनस् a.

1 sad, disconso- late, dejected, distracted.

-2 one who has concentrated and turned his mind inward, lost in abstract meditation.

-मुख a. (

-खी f.)

1 going into the mouth, pointing or turned inward; प्रचण्डपरिपिण्डितः स्तिमितवृत्तिरन्तर्मुखः Mv. 5.26.

-2 having an inward entrance of opening (बाह्यवस्तुपरिहारेण परमात्मविषयकतया प्रवेशयुक्तं चित्तादि).

-3 an epithet of the soul called प्राज्ञ, when it is enjoying the sweet bliss of sleep (आनन्दभुक् चेतोमुखः प्राज्ञः इति श्रुतेः).

-4 Spiritual minded, looking inwardly into the soul; 'अन्तर्मुखाः सततमात्मविदो महान्तः' Viś. Guṇā.139. (

-खम्) a sort of surgical scissors (having an opening inside), one of the 2 instruments mentioned by Suśruta in chapter 8 of Sūtrasthāna.

-मातृका [अन्तःस्थाः ष़ट्चक्रस्थाः मातृकाः अकारादिवर्णाः] a name given in the Tantras for the letters of the alphabet assigned to the six lotuses (पद्म) of the body; ˚न्यासः a term used in Tantra literature for the mental assignment of the seve- ral letters of the alphabet to the different parts of the body.

-मुद्र a. sealed inside; N. of a form of devotion.

-मृत a. still-born.

-यागः mental sacrifice or worship, a mode of worship referred to in the Tantras.

-यामः 1 suppression of the breath and voice.

-2 ˚पात्रम्, a sacrificial vessel (ग्रहरूपं सामापराख्यं यज्ञियपात्रम्); according to others, a Soma libation made during the suppression of breath and voice; सुहवा सूर्यायान्तर्याममनु- मन्त्रयेत् Ait. Br.

-यामिन् m.

1 regulating the soul or internal feelings, soul; Providence, Supreme Spirit as guiding and regulating mankind. Brahman; (according to the Bṛi. Ār. Up. अन्तर्यामिन 'the internal check' is the Supreme Being and not the individual soul; who standing in the earth is other than the earth, whom the earth knows not, whose body the earth is, who internally restrains and governs the earth; the same is thy soul (and mine, the internal check अन्तर्यामिन्, &c. &c.); अन्तराविश्य भूतानि यो बिभर्त्यात्मकेतुभिः । अन्तर्या- मीश्वरः साक्षाद्भवेत् &c.

-2 wind; ˚ब्राह्मणम् N. of a Brāhmaṇa included in the Bṛi. Ār. Up.

-योगः deep meditation, abstraction

-लम्ब a. acute-angular. (

-बः) an acute-angled triangle (opp. बहिर्लम्ब) (the perpendicular from the vertex or लम्ब falling within अन्तर् the triangle).

-लीन a.

1 latent, hidden, concealed inside; ˚नस्य दुःखाग्नेः U.3.9; ˚भुजङ्गमम् Pt.1.

-2 inherent.

-लोम a. (P.V.4.117) covered with hair on the inside; (

-मम्) [अन्तर्गतमाज्छाद्यं लोम अच्] the hair to be covered.

-वंशः = ˚पुरम् q. v.

-वंशिकः, -वासिकः [अन्तर्वंशे वासे नियुक्तः ठक्] a superintendent of the women's apartment.; Pt.3, K.93. Ak.2.8.8.

-वण (वन) a. situated in a forest; ˚णो देशः P.VI.2.179 Sk. (

-णम्) ind. within a forest. P.VIII.4.5.

-वत् a. being in the interior; having something in the interior.

-वती (वत्नी) Ved. [अन्तरस्त्यस्यां गर्भः] a pregnant woman; अन्तर्वत्नी प्रजावती R.15.13.

-वमिः [अन्तः स्थित एव उद्गारशब्दं कारयति, वम्-इन्] indigestion, flatulence; belching.

-वर्तिन्, -वासिन् a. being or dwelling inside, included or comprised in

-वसुः N. of a Soma sacrifice (for राज्यकाम and पशुकाम).

-वस्त्रम्, -वासस् n. an under- garment; गृहीत्वा तत्र तस्यान्तर्वस्त्राण्याभरणानि च । चेलखण्डं तमेकं च दत्वान्तर्वाससः कृते ॥. Ks.4.52.

-वा a. [अन्तः अन्तरङ्गभावं अन्तःकरणं वा वाति गच्छति स्निग्धत्वेन, वा-विच् Tv.] forming part of oneself such as children, cattle &c. ˚वत् a. (अस्त्यर्थे मतुप् मस्य वः) having progeny, cattle &c; अन्तर्वावत्क्षयं दधे Rv.1.4.7; abounding with precious things inside. -adv. inwardly.

-वाणि a. [अन्तःस्थिता शास्त्रवाक्यात्मिका वाणी यस्य] skilled or versed in scriptures, very learned (शास्त्रविद्).

-विगाहः, -हनम् entering within, penetration.

-विद्वस् a. Ved. (

विदुषी f.) knowing correctly or exactly (knowing the paths between heaven and earth) Rv.1.72.7.

-वेगः inward uneasiness or anxiety, inward fever.

-वेदि a. pertaining to the inside of the sacrificial ground. -adv. within this ground. (

-दिः -दी f.) [अन्तर्गता वेदिर्यत्र देशे] the tract of land (the Doab) between the rivers Gaṅgā and Yamunā, regarded as a sacred region and the principal seat of Āryan Brāhmaṇas; cf. एते भगवत्यौ भूमिदेवानां मूलमायतनमन्तर्वेदिपूर्वेण कलिन्दकन्यामन्दाकिन्यौ संगच्छेते A.R.7; it is supposed to have extended from Prayāga to Haradvāra and is also known by the names of शशस्थली and ब्रह्मावर्त. -m. (pl.) inhabitants of this land.

-वेश्मन् n. the inner apartments, interior of a house.

-वेश्मिकः n. a chamberlain.

-वैशिकः Officer in charge of the harem. समुद्रमुपकरणमन्तर्वैशिकहस्तादादाय परिचरेयुः Kau. A.1.21.

-शरः internal arrow or disease.

-शरीरम् internal and spiritual part of man; the interior of the body.

-शल्य a. having in the interior an arrow, pin or any such extraneous matter; rankling inside.

-शीला N. of a river rising from the Vindhya mountain.

-श्लेषः, -श्लेषणम् Ved. internal support (scaffolding &c.) एतानि ह वै वेदानामन्तः- श्लेषणानि यदेता व्याहृतयः Ait. Br.

-संज्ञ a. inwardly con- scious (said of trees &c.); ˚ज्ञा भवन्त्येते सुखदुःखसमन्विताः Ms.1.49.

-सत्त्व a. having inward strength &c. (˚

त्त्वा)

1 a pregnant woman.

-2 the marking nut.

-सन्तापः internal pain, sorrow, regret.

- सरल a. upright at heart, or having Sarala trees inside; K.51.

-सलिल a. with water (flowing) underground; नदीमिवान्तःसलिलां सरस्वतीम् R.3.9.

-सार a. having inward strength and vigour, full of strong inside; powerful, strong, heavy or ponderous; ˚रैर्मन्त्रिभिर्घार्यते राज्यं सुस्तम्भैरिव मन्दिरम् Pt.1. 126; साराणि इन्धनानि Dk.132; ˚रं घन तुलयितुं नानिलः शक्ष्यति त्वाम् Me.2. (

-रः) internal treasure or store, inner store or contents; वमन्त्युच्चैरन्तःसारम् H.2.13 internal matter or essence (and pus).

-सुख a. whose delight is in self, inwardly happy यो$न्तःसुखो$न्तरारामः Bg. 5.24

-सेनम् ind. into the midst of armies.

-स्थ a. (also written अन्तःस्थ) being between or in the midst. (

-स्थः, -स्था) a term applied to the semivowels, य्, र्, ल्, व् as standing between vowels and consonants and being formed by a slight contact of the vocal organs (ईषत्स्पृष्टं अन्तस्थानाम्); or they are so called be- cause they stand between स्पर्श (क-म) letters and ऊष्मन् (श, ष, स, ह).

-स्था 1 a deity of the vital organs.

-2 N. of one of the Ṛigveda hymns. ˚मुद्गरः the malleus of the ear.

-स्वेदः [अन्तः स्वेदो मदजलस्यन्दनं यस्य] an elephant (in rut).

-हणनम् striking in the middle.

-हननम् N. of a country बाहीक P.VIII.4.24 Sk.

-हस्तम् ind. in the hand, within reach of the hand.

-हस्तीन a. being in the hand or within reach of the hand.

-हासः laughing inwardly (in the sleeves), a secret or suppressed laugh; सान्तर्हासं कथितम् Me.113 with a suppressed laugh, with a gentle smile.

-हृदयम् the interior of the heart.

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Orphaned as a child, Hamilton went to work for Southern Pacific Railroad in his teens, and then worked for several other companies. In his spare time he learned mathematics and physics from a retired professor. In 1911 he joined the White Motor Company, makers of road motor vehicles in Denver, Colorado, where he had gone to recuperate from malaria. He remained there until 1922, apart from an eighteenth-month break for war service.

Upon his return from war service, Hamilton found White selling petrol-engined railbuses with mechanical transmission, based on road vehicles, to railways. He noted that they were not robust enough and that the success of petrol railcars with electric transmission, built by General Electric since 1906, was limited as they were complex to drive and maintain. In 1922 Hamilton formed, and became President of, the Electro- Motive Engineering Corporation (later Electro-Motive Corporation) to design and produce petrol-electric rail cars. Needing an engine larger than those used in road vehicles, yet lighter and faster than marine engines, he approached the Win ton Engine Company to develop a suitable engine; in addition, General Electric provided electric transmission with a simplified control system. Using these components, Hamilton arranged for his petrol-electric railcars to be built by the St Louis Car Company, with the first being completed in 1924. It was the beginning of a highly successful series. Fuel costs were lower than for steam trains and initial costs were kept down by using standardized vehicles instead of designing for individual railways. Maintenance costs were minimized because Electro-Motive kept stocks of spare parts and supplied replacement units when necessary. As more powerful, 800 hp (600 kW) railcars were produced, railways tended to use them to haul trailer vehicles, although that practice reduced the fuel saving. By the end of the decade Electro-Motive needed engines more powerful still and therefore had to use cheap fuel. Diesel engines of the period, such as those that Winton had made for some years, were too heavy in relation to their power, and too slow and sluggish for rail use. Their fuel-injection system was erratic and insufficiently robust and Hamilton concluded that a separate injector was needed for each cylinder.

In 1930 Electro-Motive Corporation and Winton were acquired by General Motors in pursuance of their aim to develop a diesel engine suitable for rail traction, with the use of unit fuel injectors; Hamilton retained his position as President. At this time, industrial depression had combined with road and air competition to undermine railway-passenger business, and Ralph Budd, President of the Chicago, Burlington \& Quincy Railroad, thought that traffic could be recovered by way of high-speed, luxury motor trains; hence the Pioneer Zephyr was built for the Burlington. This comprised a 600 hp (450 kW), lightweight, two-stroke, diesel engine developed by General Motors (model 201 A), with electric transmission, that powered a streamlined train of three articulated coaches. This train demonstrated its powers on 26 May 1934 by running non-stop from Denver to Chicago, a distance of 1,015 miles (1,635 km), in 13 hours and 6 minutes, when the fastest steam schedule was 26 hours. Hamilton and Budd were among those on board the train, and it ushered in an era of high-speed diesel trains in the USA. By then Hamilton, with General Motors backing, was planning to use the lightweight engine to power diesel-electric locomotives. Their layout was derived not from steam locomotives, but from the standard American boxcar. The power plant was mounted within the body and powered the bogies, and driver's cabs were at each end. Two 900 hp (670 kW) engines were mounted in a single car to become an 1,800 hp (l,340 kW) locomotive, which could be operated in multiple by a single driver to form a 3,600 hp (2,680 kW) locomotive. To keep costs down, standard locomotives could be mass-produced rather than needing individual designs for each railway, as with steam locomotives. Two units of this type were completed in 1935 and sent on trial throughout much of the USA. They were able to match steam locomotive performance, with considerable economies: fuel costs alone were halved and there was much less wear on the track. In the same year, Electro-Motive began manufacturing diesel-electrie locomotives at La Grange, Illinois, with design modifications: the driver was placed high up above a projecting nose, which improved visibility and provided protection in the event of collision on unguarded level crossings; six-wheeled bogies were introduced, to reduce axle loading and improve stability. The first production passenger locomotives emerged from La Grange in 1937, and by early 1939 seventy units were in service. Meanwhile, improved engines had been developed and were being made at La Grange, and late in 1939 a prototype, four-unit, 5,400 hp (4,000 kW) diesel-electric locomotive for freight trains was produced and sent out on test from coast to coast; production versions appeared late in 1940. After an interval from 1941 to 1943, when Electro-Motive produced diesel engines for military and naval use, locomotive production resumed in quantity in 1944, and within a few years diesel power replaced steam on most railways in the USA.

Hal Hamilton remained President of Electro-Motive Corporation until 1942, when it became a division of General Motors, of which he became Vice-President.

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(1415-1975)

   Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.

   There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).

   With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.

   The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.

   Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:

   • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)

   Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.

   Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).

   • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.

   • West Africa

   • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.

   • Middle East

   Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.

   Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.

   Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.

   Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.

   • India

   • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.

   • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.

   • East Indies

   • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.

   After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.

   Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.

   Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.

   The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.

   Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.

   In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    See also Luso-Tropicalism; Rose-colored map; Ultimatum, English.

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Trevithick's father was a tin-mine manager, and Trevithick himself, after limited formal education, developed his immense engineering talent among local mining machinery and steam-engines and found employment as a mining engineer. Tall, strong and high-spirited, he was the eternal optimist.

About 1797 it occurred to him that the separate condenser patent of James Watt could be avoided by employing "strong steam", that is steam at pressures substantially greater than atmospheric, to drive steam-engines: after use, steam could be exhausted to the atmosphere and the condenser eliminated. His first winding engine on this principle came into use in 1799, and subsequently such engines were widely used. To produce high-pressure steam, a stronger boiler was needed than the boilers then in use, in which the pressure vessel was mounted upon masonry above the fire: Trevithick designed the cylindrical boiler, with furnace tube within, from which the Cornish and later the Lancashire boilers evolved.

Simultaneously he realized that high-pressure steam enabled a compact steam-engine/boiler unit to be built: typically, the Trevithick engine comprised a cylindrical boiler with return firetube, and a cylinder recessed into the boiler. No beam intervened between connecting rod and crank. A master patent was taken out.

Such an engine was well suited to driving vehicles. Trevithick built his first steam-carriage in 1801, but after a few days' use it overturned on a rough Cornish road and was damaged beyond repair by fire. Nevertheless, it had been the first self-propelled vehicle successfully to carry passengers. His second steam-carriage was driven about the streets of London in 1803, even more successfully; however, it aroused no commercial interest. Meanwhile the Coalbrookdale Company had started to build a locomotive incorporating a Trevithick engine for its tramroads, though little is known of the outcome; however, Samuel Homfray's ironworks at Penydarren, South Wales, was already building engines to Trevithick's design, and in 1804 Trevithick built one there as a locomotive for the Penydarren Tramroad. In this, and in the London steam-carriage, exhaust steam was turned up the chimney to draw the fire. On 21 February the locomotive hauled five wagons with 10 tons of iron and seventy men for 9 miles (14 km): it was the first successful railway locomotive.

Again, there was no commercial interest, although Trevithick now had nearly fifty stationary engines completed or being built to his design under licence. He experimented with one to power a barge on the Severn and used one to power a dredger on the Thames. He became Engineer to a project to drive a tunnel beneath the Thames at Rotherhithe and was only narrowly defeated, by quicksands. Trevithick then set up, in 1808, a circular tramroad track in London and upon it demonstrated to the admission-fee-paying public the locomotive Catch me who can, built to his design by John Hazledine and J.U. Rastrick.

In 1809, by which date Trevithick had sold all his interest in the steam-engine patent, he and Robert Dickinson, in partnership, obtained a patent for iron tanks to hold liquid cargo in ships, replacing the wooden casks then used, and started to manufacture them. In 1810, however, he was taken seriously ill with typhus for six months and had to return to Cornwall, and early in 1811 the partners were bankrupt; Trevithick was discharged from bankruptcy only in 1814.

In the meantime he continued as a steam engineer and produced a single-acting steam engine in which the cut-off could be varied to work the engine expansively by way of a three-way cock actuated by a cam. Then, in 1813, Trevithick was approached by a representative of a company set up to drain the rich but flooded silver-mines at Cerro de Pasco, Peru, at an altitude of 14,000 ft (4,300 m). Low-pressure steam engines, dependent largely upon atmospheric pressure, would not work at such an altitude, but Trevithick's high-pressure engines would. Nine engines and much other mining plant were built by Hazledine and Rastrick and despatched to Peru in 1814, and Trevithick himself followed two years later. However, the war of independence was taking place in Peru, then a Spanish colony, and no sooner had Trevithick, after immense difficulties, put everything in order at the mines then rebels arrived and broke up the machinery, for they saw the mines as a source of supply for the Spanish forces. It was only after innumerable further adventures, during which he encountered and was assisted financially by Robert Stephenson, that Trevithick eventually arrived home in Cornwall in 1827, penniless.

He petitioned Parliament for a grant in recognition of his improvements to steam-engines and boilers, without success. He was as inventive as ever though: he proposed a hydraulic power transmission system; he was consulted over steam engines for land drainage in Holland; and he suggested a 1,000 ft (305 m) high tower of gilded cast iron to commemorate the Reform Act of 1832. While working on steam propulsion of ships in 1833, he caught pneumonia, from which he died.

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See also: Blenkinsop, John

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport

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Morris was the son of Frederick Morris, then a draper. He was the eldest of a family of seven, all of whom, except for one sister, died in childhood. When he was 3 years old, his father moved to Cowley, near Oxford, where he attended the village school. After a short time with a local bicycle firm he set up on his own at the age of 16 with a capital of £4. He manufactured pedal cycles and by 1902 he had designed a motor cycle and was doing car-repair work. By 1912, at the Motor Show, he was able to announce his first car, the 8.9 hp, two-seater Morris Oxford with its characteristic "bull-nose". It could perform at up to 50 mph (80 km/h) and 50 mpg (5.65 1/100 km). It cost £165.

Though untrained, Morris was a born engineer as well as a natural judge of character. This enabled him to build up a reliable team of assistants in his growing business, with an order for four hundred cars at the Motor Show in 1912. Much of his business was built up in the assembly of components manufactured by outside suppliers. In he moved out of his initial premises by New College in Longwall and bought land at Cowley, where he brought out his second model, the 11.9hp Morris Oxford. This was after the First World War, during which car production was reduced to allow the manufacture of tanks and munitions. He was awarded the OBE in 1917 for his war work. Morris Motors Ltd was incorporated in 1919, and within fifteen months sales of cars had reached over 3,000 a year. By 1923 he was producing 20,000 cars a year, and in 1926 50,000, equivalent to about one-third of Britain's output. With the slump, a substantial overdraft, and a large stock of unsold cars, Morris took the bold decision to cut the prices of cars in stock, which then sold out within three weeks. Other makers followed suit, but Morris was ahead of them.

Morris was part-founder of the Pressed Steel Company, set up to produce car bodies at Cowley. A clever operation with the shareholding of the Morris Motors Company allowed Morris a substantial overall profit to provide expansion capital. By 1931 his "empire" comprised, in addition to Morris Motors, the MG Car Company, the Wolseley Company, the SU Carburettor Company and Morris Commercial Cars. In 1936, the value of Morris's financial interest in the business was put at some £16 million.

William Morris was a frugal man and uncomplicated, having little use for all the money he made except to channel it to charitable purposes. It is said that in all he gave away some £30 million during his lifetime, much of it invested by the recipients to provide long-term benefits. He married Elizabeth Anstey in 1904 and lived for thirty years at Nuffield Place. He lived modestly, and even after retirement, when Honorary President of the British Motor Corporation, the result of a merger between Morris Motors and the Austin Motor Company, he drove himself to work in a modest 10 hp Wolseley. His generosity benefited many hospitals in London, Oxford, Birmingham and elsewhere. Oxford Colleges were another class of beneficiary from his largesse.

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